MLA citation sample and tool: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_sample_works_cited_page.html
Signposting Facts and Opinions (Hedging and Boosting)
Signposts: it is a fact, in my view, many believe, according to x, etc.
Hedges vs. Boosters
Modals: can, may, might, could will, must
Adverbs: approximately, arguably, easily, especially, frequently,
generally, perhaps, possibly, indeed, in fact, likely, more, most,
probably, relatively, roughly, often, notably, particularly,
seldom, sometimes, somewhat, significantly, decidedly, demonstrably,
theoretically, unlikely, etc. influentially, etc.
Adjectives: ambiguous, difficult, doubtful, accurate, certain, confident, effective,
less certain, uncertain, unclear, essential, evident, interesting,
unreliable, unconfirmed, vague, etc. noteworthy, positive, useful, etc.
Using Direct Quotations and Reported Speech (Paraphrasing)
Quote sandwich:
Introduction to quote
Quote
Explanation of quote
DO NOT just ‘plop’ a quote in the middle of a paragraph without introduction or explanation!
Ways to introduce a quote:
· Author + reporting verb + that + "quote" + (citation).
· Author + reporting verb, + "quote" + (citation).
· According to the author, + "quote" + (citation).
· In the article, + "Title," + author + reporting verb + that + "quote" + (citation).
· In author’s opinion, + "quote" + (citation).
· Author disagrees/agrees with this point when she states, + "quote" + (citation).
For example:
Flanagan argues against the harms of externalities in her article, “The Hidden Externalities of Fishing.” In particular, she reports that “The industry has already ignored obvious problems” like environmental destruction, and is “unlikely” to stop anytime soon (Flanagan, p. 5). I agree with Flanagan’s point that we must begin enforcing stricter regulations to stop such damage because without enforcement, regulations are meaningless and have no effect.
Reported speech:
· Mention the source
· Use the correct reporting verb
· Paraphrase!
How to paraphrase:
1. Summarize the text using your notes
2. Use synonyms for key words
3. Rearrange the structure
a. Switch passive to active or vice versa
b. Move clauses around, change their order
c. Reduce clauses where possible
Example of paraphrasing a quote: “Other illegal but widely practiced fishing methods like bottom trawling can destroy large sections of coral reef; the practices remain in widespread use despite environmental damage because they catch large quantities of fish.” <-- Quote
In her article, “The Hidden Externalities of Fishing,” Flanagan argues that the profitability of catching large amounts of fish incentivizes illegal fishing practices even though they destroy marine environments. <-- Paraphrase
Using Language to Add Cohesion
Cohesive devices occur at the level of sentences and usually follow a pattern of moving from old to new information. Types include:
- Repetition
o Key words à synonyms
- Reference
o Demonstrative determiners (this, that, these, those)
o Comparatives (another, other, the other, others, such)
o Pronouns (he, them, me, etc.)
o Possessive pronouns (your, their, hers, etc.)
o Relative pronouns (which, whose, who, etc.)
- Cohesive nouns
o Referent + key word/phrase (e.g., these arguments)
- Topic introducers (concerning, regarding, in reference to, as for, in regard to, related to) + referent + noun/noun phrase (e.g., concerning these arguments)
- Logical connectors (because of, due to, as a result of, based on, given, in light of, regardless of, despite, like, similar to, in contrast to, in comparison to, unlike, in addition to) + referent + noun phrase (e.g., because of these erroneous claims)
Structure = Argument
o An argument is a series of statements offered as proof (premises, reasons why) for some proposition (conclusion, claim, assertion).
o Example:
§ Premise: All mammals have fur.
§ Premise: All cats are mammals.
§ Conclusion: Therefore all cats have fur.
o Not an argument:
§ I like cake.
§ Cake is good.
§ Give me some cake.
o Complete the inference:
§ Premise: All humans are mortal.
§ Premise: Socrates is human.
§ Conclusion:
o Note: A moral argument requires moral evidence.
o Premise(s)
§ Reasons why, support, proof, evidence for some claim
§ Often more than one, supporting points or evidence for the conclusion, the reasons for believing the author’s opinion or main point
§ May be factual, historical, scientific, statistic, etc.
§ Premise identification words: because, since, due to, based on, for, inasmuch as, as shown by, for the reason that, as indicated by, in that, may be inferred from, as, given that, seeing that, owing to
§ Note: a single indicator word may indicate more than one premise, and premises may have no indicators at all
o Conclusion
§ Not the end of the paragraph or essay; in logic, a conclusion is the most important part of an argument, the claim or assertion made by the author, the proposition the author wants to convince you is true
§ Usually a statement of belief or opinion, can be a prediction of results or effects
§ Conclusion identification words: therefore, thus, so, hence, consequently, in conclusion, accordingly, as a result, wherefore, we may infer, we may conclude, it must be that, for this reason, entails that, it follows that, implies that
§ Opinion identification words: suggest, believe, hope, indicate, argue, follow
§ Belief identification words: should, would, must, will, ought
§ Note that conclusions may precede or follow the premises in order of presentation
§ Note also that indicator words can be used in error by bad writers
o Assumptions
§ Assumptions are things that are not SAID in the argument, but are REQUIRED if the argument is to make any sense. Some assumptions seem so obvious that it would be silly to even say them out loud. There are no assumption identification words because assumptions are not explicitly stated, they are only implied.
o Some statements in the passage may be neither premises nor conclusions
